One Label, Many Realities: ‘Birth Tourism’ and the Lived Realities of Non-resident Mothers in Canada
For many non-resident mothers, giving birth in Canada is not entirely about taking advantage of the system—it reflects a more complex migration and family planning story. Yet, political debates persistently frame them as “birth tourists.”
Dr. Amanda Cheong and PhD candidate Hilal Kina conducted interviews with non-resident mothers who had previously given birth in Canada. Their research shows that rather than a uniform group of strategic citizenship-seekers, many non-resident mothers give birth while working, during studies, as asylum claimants, or because of instability and violence in their home countries.
“Legislative efforts to restrict birthright citizenship risk excluding diverse families with varied reasons for migrating and having children in Canada. Despite its flaws, territorial birthright remains essential and should be protected.”
Key Findings
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Non-resident mothers give birth in Canada for various reasons. Often lumped together as birth tourists, these births can be accidental, strategic, or simply incidental to women’s personal and professional goals in Canada.
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Women’s reproductive journeys are also shaped by structural factors. Many non-resident mothers give birth in Canada due to factors in their homeland, like fleeing violence or political instability or delays in Canada’s immigration system.
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Current estimates on birth tourism rates are misleading. Existing methods use hospital billing codes, which lump together a range of non-residents including international students and asylum seekers—many of whom do not fit the definition of a birth tourist.
Recommendations
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Governments should move beyond hospital billing codes when assessing birth tourism. They should invest in understanding the broader structural conditions that shape non-resident families’ reproduction decisions.
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Canada’s birthright citizenship should be protected. Birthright citizenship is essential to ensuring that all residents of Canada are afforded rights and to fostering the long-term inclusion of families who contribute to society.
Implications for Current Events
In 2024, the Canadian Institute for Health Information (CIHI) data registered 5,430 “other country resident self-pay” births in Canadian hospitals—more than double the pandemic-era average of 2,339, and approximately 2% of all hospital births. Political attention to non-resident births prompted an amendment to Bill C-3 to eliminate automatic birthright citizenship unless one parent is a Canadian citizen or permanent resident. However, using only the hospital code to measure possible cases of birth tourism ignores many temporary immigration status holders do not fit the definition of a “birth tourist”.
Dr. Amanda Cheong and her colleagues’ research responds directly to this tension. Drawing on interviews with non-resident mothers in Canada, their study shows that motivations and circumstances behind non-resident mothers’ births are far more varied than the label implies. While some mothers deliberately planned their births in Canada for citizenship purposes, many others were seeking asylum or working or studying in Canada at the time they gave birth. As such, they argue that hospital-code estimates overstate the phenomenon and overlook the diverse experiences of non-resident mothers in Canada.
About the Authors
Amanda Cheong is an Assistant Professor of Sociology at the University of British Columbia. Her research focuses on how legal status and documents shape people’s lives, particularly in Southeast Asia and in North America. Her research has been published in International Migration Review, Social Problems, and Ethnic and Racial Studies. She is writing a book about the experiences of stateless individuals in Malaysia. She earned her BA at the University of British Columbia and her PhD at Princeton University.
Hilal Kina is a PhD candidate in the Department of Anthropology at the University of British Columbia. Hilal’s doctoral research centers on dispossession, systemic marginalization and everyday resistance, particularly within the context of Armenians in Turkey. Hilal’s MA work focused on the role of collective apologies in post-conflict settings. Hilal has been actively involved in initiatives supporting social justice, decolonization and Indigenous self-determination in various contexts.
Capri Kong is a PhD student in the Department of Sociology at the University of British Columbia. She holds a BA degree and a Master’s degree from the University of British Columbia. Her current research studies the characteristics and dynamics of friendship networks among first- and second-generation immigrants and their influence on immigrants’ sense of belonging and integration into Canadian society.
Original Research
Cheong, Amanda R., Megan Gaucher, Jing Li, Stephanie Nedoshytko, Jamie Chai Yun Liew, Angela M. Contreras-Chavez, Hilal Kina, Nikita McDavid, and David Brush. 2025. “Unpacking ‘Birth Tourism’: Incidental Citizenship and the Diverse Migration and Reproduction Trajectories of Nonresident Mothers in Canada.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 51 (17): 4299-4319.
Copyright: UBC Centre for Migration Studies
Availability: Web & Print
Publication date: April 30, 2026
Pages: 3
This publication is part of the CMS Migration Insights Series. The research briefs synthesize peer-reviewed, published academic research by CMS affiliates.
How will Bill C-12 impact Canadian immigration and refugee protection?
On March 26, 2026, Bill C-12: Strengthening Canada’s Immigration System and Borders Act became law. It reshapes Canada’s refugee claims system, expands government discretion over immigration documents, and increases government power to share personal information.
Read the explainer to understand what’s in the bill, why it was introduced, and what it means for refugee claimants, temporary migrants, and community organizations.
Why does this matter?
The government says Bill C-12 will reduce backlogs, close loopholes in immigration rules, deter misuse of the refugee system, and make processes more efficient. However, migrant rights and civil society organizations argue it will:
- Undermine refugee protection and procedural fairness
- Exacerbate vulnerability for temporary residents and people seeking protection
- Broaden executive discretion and sharing of personal data
- Shift or even increase (rather than reduce) backlogs
- Erode legal and constitutional protections
About the author
Lisa Ruth Brunner, PhD, is a Research Associate at the University of British Columbia Centre for Migration Studies. She studies immigration, citizenship, and education, with expertise in international student mobility, multi-step migration, and refugee resettlement. She has over fifteen years of professional experience in newcomer settlement in Canada and the U.S. and has been a Regulated Canadian Immigration Consultant since 2014.
Suggested citation
Brunner, Lisa Ruth. 2026. “How will Bill C-12 impact Canadian immigration and refugee protection?” Immigration Policy Decoded (No. 2026-01). Vancouver: University of British Columbia Centre for Migration Studies.
Copyright: UBC Centre for Migration Studies
Availability: Web & Print
Publication date: April 20, 2026 (No. 1)
Pages: 9
Play by the Rules: Racialization and Mental Health of Chinese Canadian Youth
For many Chinese-Canadian youth, the pandemic was not just a health crisis, but a period of intensified racialization that damaged their mental well-being and hindered their access to support.
Anti-Asian racism is not new, but the COVID-19 pandemic amplified its reach and intensity and had a direct and damaging impact on the daily lives and mental well-being of Chinese-Canadian youth. In response, many have developed strategies to navigate the rules of racism to overcome discriminatory encounters at the expense of their emotional and mental health. Dr. Carla Hilario and her colleagues examine these experiences and strategies, highlighting youth’s struggles with racialization and the barriers that make professional mental health services feel out of reach.
“We must not mistake the resilience of youth for a positive outcome. Enduring racism is a painful, lifelong burden—not a rite of passage.”
Key Findings
- During the COVID-19 pandemic, Chinese-Canadian youth experienced an increase in racism. These encounters became more frequent, “blatant,” and “violent” than their previous experiences.
- Chinese-Canadian youth referred to a set of “rules” to navigate racism, including ignoring it, confronting perpetrators, educating others, or even going along with it to preserve relationships—often at a personal and emotional cost.
- Experiences of racism led to feelings of loneliness, anger, and a decreased sense of self-worth. Some affected youth faced barriers to mental health care, including a lack of providers who can understand their experiences with racism.
Recommendations
- Mental health services can prioritize psychological safety for racialized youth by promoting and providing culturally safe care. Without it, individuals experiencing discrimination will not necessarily be able to access and/or receive the support they need.
- Healthcare institutions can implement mandatory anti-racism training to better equip service providers working with youth. All institutions serving racialized youth need the tools to identify and address barriers to care and inclusion.
Implications for Current Events
A recent University of Ottawa survey has sounded the alarm on Canada’s national youth mental health crisis. Results show that racialized and Indigenous communities suffer disproportionately higher rates of depression and anxiety than their white counterparts. Racial discrimination was found to be a key driver, with the survey warning that chronic exposure can impair the overall health and academic or workplace outcomes of racialized youth. While the survey data confirms the link, the survey does not address how racialized youth navigate daily experiences of racial discrimination and their mental well-being.
Dr. Carla Hilario and her colleagues’ research provides a deeper understanding of these lived experiences. Focusing on the experiences of Chinese-Canadian youth during the COVID-19 pandemic, their study reveals the strategies that youth developed to negotiate and overcome anti-Asian racism. The research documents the profound psychological toll of racialization—like anger and isolation—to the coping mechanisms they built through mutual support. Ultimately, Dr. Hilario and her colleagues emphasize that these experiences with racism have a lasting negative effect on youth mental health and their access to care. They encourage healthcare professionals to recognize the impact of racism and to conduct anti-racism training to support racialized youth.
About the Authors
Carla Hilario (RN, PhD) is a nurse scientist, Michael Smith Health Research BC Scholar, and Assistant Professor at the University of British Columbia-Okanagan. Dr. Hilario’s research examines the structural and social determinants of young people’s health, including migration as a determinant of mental health outcomes and access to health care services for newcomers, immigrants, refugees, and racialised young people.
Capri Kong is a PhD student in the Department of Sociology at the University of British Columbia. She holds a BA degree and a Master’s degree from the University of British Columbia. Her current research studies the characteristics and dynamics of friendship networks among first- and second-generation immigrants and their influence on immigrants’ sense of belonging and integration into Canadian society.
Original Research
Ng, Isabella, Carla Hilario, and Jordana Salma. 2025. ““If I Stay Quiet, the Only Person that Gets Hurt is Me”: Anti-Asian Racism and the Mental Health of Chinese-Canadian Youth during the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Canadian Journal of Nursing Research 57 (1): 33-46.
Copyright: UBC Centre for Migration Studies
Availability: Web & Print
Publication date: March 20, 2026
Pages: 3
This publication is part of the CMS Migration Insights Series. The research briefs synthesize peer-reviewed, published academic research by CMS affiliates.
MYPEER: Implementation and Evaluation of an App to Improve Sexual and Reproductive Health Among Immigrant Adolescents in Canada
Project Overview
MYPEER, is a mobile app designed with immigrant adolescents using Community-Based Participatory Action Research and Human-Centred Design. Grounded in behavioural theories. It offers engaging, expert-reviewed content on puberty, contraception, STIs, gender identity, and healthy relationships. It also helps users find inclusive sexual and reproductive health (SRH) services by filtering options based on language, accessibility, and 2SLGBTQIA+ friendliness. This study aims to assess the feasibility and acceptability of MYPEER as an SRH intervention among immigrant youth in Alberta and British Columbia, helping to inform scalable solutions for inclusive SRH education across Canada.
The project objectives are:
- Evaluating recruitment and enrollment processes across diverse communities;
- Monitoring participant retention and engagement over time;
- Assessing the practicality and clarity of survey tools and app usage metrics;
- Estimating preliminary changes in SRH knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors;
- Calculating effect sizes to inform sample size planning for a future RCT.
Research Questions
- How effective are the recruitment and enrollment strategies in engaging immigrant adolescents from diverse communities in Alberta and British Columbia?
- To what extent do participants remain engaged with the MYPEER app and complete follow-up assessments over the study period?
- Are the survey tools and app usage metrics practical, culturally appropriate, and clearly understood by immigrant adolescents?
- What preliminary changes in sexual and reproductive health (SRH) knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours are observed among users of the MYPEER app, and what are the estimated effect sizes to guide future RCT planning?
Research Design and Methodology
This is a single-arm, pre-post feasibility study conducted over 15 months in Alberta and British Columbia. Participants will receive access to the MYPEER app and will be followed over a 6-month period to evaluate engagement and potential changes in outcomes.
Collaborators
UBC School of Nursing & Stigma and Resilience Among Vulnerable Youth Centre (SARAVYC)
- Principal Investigator: Elizabeth Saewyc (Professor & Distinguished University Scholar, Director, School of Nursing)
University of Alberta
- Project Leader: Salima Meherali (Associate Professor & Associate Dean International, Faculty of Nursing)
Outputs
Project Status
This project is currently in the Planning phase.
Keywords
Immigrant adolescents, Sexual and reproductive health, digital tools, community-based participatory research
This research was undertaken thanks in part to funding from the Canada First Research Excellence Fund.
Integration Starts Abroad: How Technology Shapes Displaced Newcomers’ Integration in Canada
For many displaced newcomers, integration into the host country is a complex process. Increasingly, newcomers use online platforms and transnational social connections to prepare their settlement and integration both before and after arrival in Canada.
Displaced newcomers are using digital tools and social networks to secure housing and jobs before arrival—a process of transnational early integration. Research by CMS affiliates Sophie Xiaoyi Liu and Dr. Aryan Karimi with Afghan refugees and displaced Ukrainians reveals that while this strategy accelerates pre-arrival resettlement, it also exposes them to misinformation and online hostility.
“We show that many newcomers, such as Afghan refugees and displaced Ukrainians coming to Canada, are already building employment, housing, language skills, and community support through digital and transnational networks before they arrive—redefining how integration takes place.”
Key Findings
- Displaced newcomers use digital technology to support their resettlement before arriving in Canada. Information about employment, housing, and government services comes from websites and online personal connections.
- Social media provides essential immigration information, but also exposes newcomers to misinformation and potential discrimination. This can exacerbate psychological health risks and migration anxieties for displaced newcomers.
- Many displaced newcomers rely on trusted family and friends in Canada to overcome integration barriers. While newcomers used online platforms, their lack of references in Canada made it difficult to secure housing and jobs without the support of trusted individuals already in Canada.
Recommendations
- Governments should provide comprehensive pre-arrival and post-arrival integration information on official websites. This can include information on services and NGO resources to ensure refugees have reliable settlement information.
- Policymakers should subsidize early language training for refugee newcomers, funding courses inside and outside Canada to remove early integration barriers.
Implications for Current Events
February 2026 marks four years since Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, a conflict that forced millions of Ukrainians to seek safety abroad. Canada is one of the major destinations for displaced Ukrainians after introducing the Canada-Ukraine Authorization for Emergency Travel (CUAET), which offered accelerated temporary status for displaced Ukrainians. By April 1, 2024, the program received nearly 1.2 million applications and approved over 960,000. After obtaining travel authorization, the next challenge for Ukrainians is navigating integration from a crisis zone to a new life in Canada.
Sophie Xiaoyi Liu and Dr. Aryan Karimi, in their new research, studied the integration experiences of both Afghan refugees and displaced Ukrainians in Canada. They found that refugees seek to secure housing and employment before they even arrive in Canada, a phenomenon they described as transnational integration. To do that, many refugees used a mix of official government portals, social media platforms, and social connections in Canada to secure these essentials from overseas. However, their widespread use of digital tools also sometimes exposed them to misinformation and anti-immigrant hostility, complicating their integration into Canada.
About the Authors
Sophie Xiaoyi Liu is a PhD candidate in Sociology at the University of British Columbia, specializing in the sociology of law, race/ethnicity, and migration. She examines how knowledge of and experiences with the law shape the ways marginalized groups engage with legal practices in the North American context. Her dissertation examines pathways to justice for hate incident victims in Canada, with a particular focus on the experiences of Asian minorities. She employs diverse methodologies to explore these issues, including survey experiments, in-depth interviews, and computational text analysis.
Aryan Karimi is an Assistant Professor of Sociology at the University of British Columbia. He studies migration and refugee flows, the role of ethnic and racial boundaries in assimilation practices, and the daily lived experiences of racialized refugee and diasporic communities. His research engages with immigrants/refugees from the Middle East, North Africa, Africa, and Sub-Saharan Africa, with particular attention to the links between pre- and post-migration experiences and the broader transnational legacies that shape migration.
Capri Kong is a PhD student in the Department of Sociology at the University of British Columbia. She holds a BA degree and a Master’s degree from the University of British Columbia. Her current research studies the characteristics and dynamics of friendship networks among first- and second-generation immigrants and their influence on immigrants’ sense of belonging and integration into Canadian society.
Original Research
Liu, Sophie Xiaoyi, and Aryan Karimi. 2026. “Refugee Integration Goes Transnational: Afghans and Ukrainians Prepare for Integration in Canada Before and After Arrival.” Global Networks 26, no. 1: e70042.
Copyright: UBC Centre for Migration Studies
Availability: Web & Print
Publication date: March 5, 2026
Pages: 3
This publication is part of the CMS Migration Insights Series. The research briefs synthesize peer-reviewed, published academic research by CMS affiliates.
Can Words Shift Views? How Policy Communication Shifts Support for Low-Skilled Immigration
Canada needs both high-skilled and low-skilled immigrants, but public support for immigration favours the highly skilled. This creates a dilemma for the Canadian government to balance public opinion with essential labour needs.
The gap in public support between high- and low-skilled immigration presents a major challenge for Canadian policymakers. To address both immigration priorities and labour shortages, the Canadian government needs to build more public consensus. CMS affiliate Dr. Vince Hopkins and his colleagues investigate how policy communications can shift public opinion and increase support for low-skilled immigration.
“To build the consensus needed for Canada's economic future, policymakers need to move beyond the skill-level divide. We need to address public concerns by clearly articulating how a balanced, skilled immigration system benefits the nation as a whole.”
Key Findings
- While Canadians are generally supportive of immigration, this support is conditional on immigrants’ skill level. 75% of respondents supported the entry of more high-skilled immigrants, compared to only 22% supported welcoming more low-skilled immigrants.
- Attitudes toward high-skilled immigration are not easy to change. Even when respondents were presented with the potential economic downsides of high-skilled immigration, their support remained high.
- Positive framing about low-skilled immigration can increase support for allowing more low-skilled immigrants. When the economic benefits of low-skilled immigration are communicated clearly and positively, support for this group significantly increases.
Recommendations
- Governments can develop clear, direct, and positive policy communication regarding the economic contributions of low-skilled workers to build public support for expanding low-skilled immigration policies.
- Governments can also reduce public uncertainty by clearly communicating how a balanced system of both high-skilled and low-skilled immigration can bring economic benefits to the country as a whole.
Implications for Current Events
In early January 2026, Statistics Canada’s Labour Force Survey reported employment declines in both high-skilled and low-skilled sectors. Professional and technical services dropped by 0.9% (18,000 jobs), while accommodation and food services lost 1.0% (12,000 jobs). The utilities sector—essential for electricity and waste management—fell by 3.0%. Lower employment does not necessarily mean “fewer jobs,” especially when baseline demand is relatively stable. Rather, it implies a reduction in the number of available workers needed to provide everyday services and maintain infrastructure.
This is where immigration policy, and specifically a balanced intake across skill levels, comes in. Yet, public opinion tends to lean toward high-skilled immigrants. To examine this divide, Dr. Vince Hopkins and his colleagues examined how policy communications can shift public support toward low-skilled immigration. While Canadians have a strong preference for high-skilled immigrants, when the public is presented with clear, positive information about the economic benefits of low-skilled immigration, support for this group increased. This suggests governments’ communication of the concrete economic contributions of low-skilled immigrants can garner more favourable public opinion for lower-skilled immigrants.
About the Authors
Vince Hopkins is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Political Science at the University of British Columbia. He is interested in Canadian politics, with an emphasis on applied social policy. He examines how political and psychological barriers prevent citizens from accessing the services they need. His current research aims to improve the take-up of employment and integration services among jobseekers, young adults, and newcomers.
Capri Kong is a PhD student in the Department of Sociology at the University of British Columbia. She holds a BA degree and a Master’s degree from the University of British Columbia. Her current research studies the characteristics and dynamics of friendship networks among first- and second-generation immigrants and their influence on immigrants’ sense of belonging and integration into Canadian society.
Original Research
Hopkins, Vincent, Andrea Lawlor, and Mireille Paquet. 2024. “How do Immigration Policies Affect Voter Support for Low-Skilled Immigrants? Evidence from a Survey Experiment.” The International Migration Review.
Copyright: UBC Centre for Migration Studies
Availability: Web & Print
Publication date: February 11, 2026
Pages: 3
This publication is part of the CMS Migration Insights Series. The research briefs synthesize peer-reviewed, published academic research by CMS affiliates.